Where four layers are P-N-P-N and two terminals are anode and cathode. The circuit for this case is shown in figure 3. This device It consist of four layer, three junction and two terminal device. It is a two terminal device hence it is called as diodes. Its structure can also be split into the PN junction diodes D1, D2, and D3 as shown in the figure below. The SCR latches in ON state and the Shockley cannot switch it OFF. The image below (left) shows the basic structure . The schematic diagram of Shockley Diode is shown in figure 1. Whereas the current flows from anode to cathode. These modes of operation are explained in detail below. The diode current rises up to a limit called holding current, the diode switch ON and the voltage across the diode starts to decrease while the current increases. Once it reaches the saturation region, the diode is latched in ON state. A latched Shockley diode is re-set back into its nonconducting state by reducing current through it untillow-current dropoutoccurs. ( Types of Diode and symbol) It is equivalent to a thyristor without a gate. If reverse voltage is increased sufficiently, the reverse voltage breakdown (point A in Above Fig.) We need fund to operate the site, and almost all of it comes from our online advertising. document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series, Testing a Transistor with a Digital Multimeter. Privacy. It shows that the four layer diode can be considered as two transistors which are connected back to back. These behave as a pair of interconnected PNP and NPN transistors. Junction J1& J2 are forward and junction J3 as reverse bias. The termfiringrefers to the initiation of a latched state. The junction of the Shockley diode can be formed by different metals like tungsten, gold, chromium, molybdenum, platinum, or certain silicides. The Shockley diodealso called a PNPN diode, four-layer diode, or reverse-blocking diode thyristorwas one of the first semiconductor devices invented and was commercialized by the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in the late 1950s. The disadvantages of the Shockley diode include the following. It was invented by William Shockley. The current flowing through the device is very small leakage current.If the reverse voltage reaches the reverse breakdown voltage then the device breaksdown and a large current flows through it and diode gets damaged. Put in simple terms, the Shockley diode tends to stay on once its turned on, and stay off once its turned off. (ii) When Shockley diode is reverse biased (i.e., anode is negative w.r.t. This is able to cause latching (turning on) of the diode due to inherent junction capacitances within the transistors. Shockley Diode is a four-layer (PNPN) semiconductor diode. The junction J1 is emitter base junction, junction J2 base collector or collector -base junction and junction j3 is base -emitter junction. However, a very small leakage current flow through it is called forward leakage current which is dependent on the temperature. In order to investigate the effects of the covalent bonding on the signal generated in such sensors . (iii). Relaxation oscillator circuit using a Shockley diode. Thus, this is all about an overview of the Shockley diode which performs as a switch. This diode has a negative resistance characteristic property which means on voltage increases across the terminals of the device the electric current throughout it will be decreased. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two electrical terminals. Want to enter more than 12 words? This voltage is termed as reverse avalanche voltage VgA. The Shockley diode is a two terminal and four layer semiconductor switching diode. While junction J2 is the combined base-collector junction of both. Unlike other semiconductor diodes, the Shockley diode has more than one PN junction. Note: To turn off the Shockley diode, the applied voltage is reduced to such a value so that current flowing through the device drops below its holding current (IH) value. Connect the red positive test lead to the anode of the Schottky diode and the black common test lead to the cathode of the diode. Transformer oil used in Transformer provides, In an ideal transformer the no-load primary current, Lesson in Electric circuits Volume III Semiconductors, The Ultimate Guide to Polar and Rectangular Notations and Conversions Everyone doing Electrical Should know, Top 10 Examples of Closed Loop Control Systems [Practical Applications], How to Insulation Resistance Test a Cable, Value of Form factor for DC supply voltage is always. This electronics-related article is a stub. But the SCR triggering times can be controlled by choosing proper capacitor & resistors components values. Required fields are marked *. Junction J2 is common to both transistor. At this point, diodes D1 and D3 would go into reverse-voltage breakdown, the reverse current flowingthrough them would rise rapidly and the heat produced by this current flow could ruin the entire device. It is similar to a thyristor with detached gate. Two papers on the work are published in the current edition of Physical Review B. It is also known as a four-layer diode or PNPN diode. The main difference between conventional diode and Shockley diode is, it starts conducting when the forward voltage crosses its breakdown voltage. The RC network is given through a DC supply to drive the diode. The applied voltage appears across the diode. This diode operates as a power, inorganic. It is a two terminal device hence it is called as diodes. In reverse biased mode junction J1 and J3 are reverse biased and junction J2 is forward biased. Shockley Diode: Construction, Working, Characteristics and Applications, What is a Shockley Diode? Conclusion. A Shockley diode is a two terminal, three junction, four-layer p-n-p-n semiconductor device. It is a PNPN diode, with alternating layers of P-type and N-type material. Not easy to turn off.Can not switch at a fast speed.There is no control over the forward breakdown voltage. The Shockley diode can be connected in forward bias and reverse bias. If you would like to change your settings or withdraw consent at any time, the link to do so is in our privacy policy accessible from our home page. Since it has two terminals, it is classified as a diode. Saturationregion.When the four-layer diode is forward biased, a small forward current flows until the voltage reaches the breakover voltage Vbo and corresponding current is Ibo.As soon as forward voltage reaches Vbo the device current increases suddenly and the voltage across the device drops to a low value.The device thus enters into the negative resistance region for a very short time. The Shockley diode has a negative resistance characteristic. The two terminals are anode and cathode. cathode), junctions J1 and J3 would be forward biased while junction J2 would be reverse biased. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. \$\endgroup\$ - arc_lupus. capacitor C starts charging towards Vdc Via R.When Vc = Vbo of the diode, it turns on to provide the gate current pulse to SCR and turns on the SCR. Similarly, this diode provides very less resistance once the voltage is above the break-over value. It is named after its inventor William BradfordShockley. The anode terminal is connected to the outer P-layer while the cathode terminal is connected to the outer N-layer. However, there is a very small leakage current called reverse leakage current. It has two terminal anode and cathode same as from PN junction diode and it look like semi triangle shape symbol. This mode is called Reverse Blocking Mode. Shockley diodes were manufactured and marketed by Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in the late 1950s. Diode D2 then comes out of its reverse-breakdown state and its high-resistance value is restored. If the applied voltage across the diode increases at a high rate of change, it may trigger. No in-between or active mode in its operation: it is a purely on or off device, as are all thyristors. A Shockley diode is a two terminal, three junction, four-layer p-n-p-n semiconductor device. Here is the Shockley diode equation; Vd = applied voltage across the Shockley diode. It conducts when it is forward biased and stops conducting when it is reverse biased. These diodes include simply two conditions like either ON or OFF so, these diodes are classified as a thyristor. Even if the applied voltage is reduced to a point well below what it took to get the Shockley diode conducting, it will remain conducting because both transistors now have base current to maintain regular, controlled conduction. Like pn junction diode It conducts in forward bias and stops conducting in reverse bias. (i) When Shockley diode is forward biased (i.e., anode is positive w.r.t. It was invented by William Shockley. However, there is a small leakage current called the forward leakage current. While junction J2 is the combined base-collector junction of both transistors. Single . It is used primarily for switching applications. The four layers PNPN can be split into two, The junctions J1 and J3 are the base-emitter junctions of PNP and NPN respectively. Some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent. When this diode is reversed biased (i.e., anode is negative w.r.t. Learn how your comment data is processed. Find out 12 words or word expressions (Schottky diodes) and send the file for checking it up. It is used as a switch, it operates in two states either ONorOFF. These devices works on the principle of Shockley diode. We promise not to spam you. It is a two-terminal device that's why it is characterized as a diode. It should not be confused with the Schottky diode that is made of MS (metal-semiconductor) junction to attain a fast switching speed. In the following circuit, SCR can be activated through the Shockley diode. The symbol of Shockley diode is shown in Fig. April 9, 2020 The four-layer diode, also called the Shockley diode after its inventor William Shockley, is essentially a low-current SCR without a gate. Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory was a pioneering semiconductor developer founded by William Shockley, and funded by Beckman Instruments, Inc., in 1955. When the diode is in the forward, the current flows through the diode, Shockley diode is also termed as four PNPN junction diode. Shockley diode was manufactured & marketed in late 1950 by Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory. It is equivalent to three junction diodes connected in series as shown in figure 2. If we graph this sequence of events and plot the results on an I/V graph, the hysteresis is evident. The internal structure and symbol is as shown in the figure. The term Shockley diode or PNPN diode is named from the inventor "William Bradford Shockley". Electronics Hub - Tech Reviews | Guides & How-to | Latest Trends Like all thyristors, Shockley diodes tend to stay on once turned on (, To latch a Shockley diode exceed the anode-to-cathode, To cause a Shockley diode to stop conducting, reduce the current going through it to a level below its. Due to its fast switching it is used in TTL circuits. Our website is made possible by displaying online advertisements to our visitors. Collector point T1 connected to base point of T2 and collector point of T2 connected to base point of T1. Shockley diode definition is; a semiconductor switching diode which includes four layers like P-N-P-N and two terminals like anode & cathode and this diode is also called the PNPN diode or four-layer diode. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. It has three PN junctions. The main difference between conventional diode and Shockley diode is, it starts conducting when the forward voltage crosses it's breakdown voltage. Manage SettingsContinue with Recommended Cookies. The Shockley diode remains in an OFF state, with a very high resistance, until a voltage greater than the trigger voltage is applied across its terminals. The effect of positive feedback is to keep both transistors in a state of saturation despite the loss of input stimulus (the original, high voltage needed to break down one transistor and cause a base current through the other transistor): (Figurebelow), If the DC voltage source is turned down too far, though, the circuit will eventually reach a point where there isnt enough current to sustain both transistors in saturation. Small-signal Shockley diodes are no longer manufactured, but the unidirectional thyristor breakover diode, also known as the dynistor, is a functionally equivalent power device. This behaviour of Shockley diode is indicated on its V-I characteristic in Below Fig. . This is not to be confused with a Schottky diode, that two-layer metal-semiconductor device known for its high switching speed. Schottky diode is operate as signalling and rectifying device. A transient-voltage-suppression (TVS) diode, also transil or thyrector, is an electronic component used to protect electronics from voltage spikes. The circuit is shown in Fig. It is a four layer semiconductor device and it was the first semiconductor devices. It is also known as PNPN or a four-layer diode. In forward blocking mode, the Shockley diode is in OFF state offering high impedance. Once the SCR is switched ON then it will stay in the latching. EEVblog Electronics Community Forum. Wordsearch Words: Words: 0 of 12. . The Main Difference between Active and Passive Components, How to Calculate the Value of Resistor for LEDs & Different Types of LED Circuits, 15+ Must Have Android Apps for Electrical & Electronics Engineers & Students, Difference Between Schottky Diode and Fast Recovery Diode. All that I'm working with is an iPhone camera.. (I forget how to post pictures here as thumbnails.. ) ShockleyProto1.jpg (962.44 kB, 2092x1043 - viewed 325 times.) Non -rectifying contacts are made at the end surfaces. Get Free Android App | Download Electrical Technology App Now! As the reverse voltage increases, the leakage current gradually increases until the voltage reaches the reverse breakdown voltage, Avalanche breakdown occurs and a large current starts flowing through the diode. Silicon carbide (SiC) is a semiconductor material that outperforms pure silicon-based semiconductors in several applications. This work mainly elucidates "dispersion weighted charge transfer delay" at each hopping step, which can be modified by electric field assisted site-energy difference and molecular vibrations. Hence, it offers a very high resistance to the current flow. It is rarely used and not easily available. 2. For decades, Schottky diode has been used as the main components in frequency mixer and RF power detector circuits. Similarly, in reverse bias conditions, if a reverse voltage is enhanced sufficiently, then reverse voltage attains reverse breakdown voltage or VBR. cathode), diodes D1 and D3 would be forward-biased while diode D2 would be reverse-biased. The major difference between Shockley and a conventional diode is that it starts conduction once the forward voltage exceeds the break-over voltage Vbo. We'll assume you're ok with this, but you can opt-out if you wish. In reverse bias +ve line connected to cathode and ve line connected to anode. We depends on ad revenue to keep creating quality content for you to learn and enjoy for free. But how do we now get the two transistors to turn off again? (i). The Shockley diode is used as a trigger switch for silicon control rectifier, relaxation oscillator (sawtooth oscillator), and also it is used as an audio amplifier. The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law gives the I-V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The diode forward current must be reduced below the level of holding current Ih. Similarly, once the J1 & J3 are connected in reverse bias & J2 is forward biased then the device will start working in this mode. the continuous function of charge and discharge of capacitor the cycle repeats itself. EE-Tools, Instruments, Devices, Components & Measurements, Schottky Diode: Construction, Working, and Applications, Zener Diode: Symbol, Construction, Working and Applications, What is a Diode? This breakdown will reduce the resistance, so the diode will provide less resistance. [1] It was the first high technology company in what came to be known as Silicon Valley to work on silicon-based semiconductor devices. The construction of the Shockley diode can be done by connecting the 4-layers to form a PNPN junction. Though it has multiple junctions, it is termed a diode for being a two-terminal device. It is rarely used and not easily available. The voltage variation across the capacitor is as shown in the graph voltage across the capacitor is always grater than zero. During discharging of the capacitor, its current drops below the holding current and the Shockley diode switch off. It consists of four alternate p-type and n-type semiconductor layers in a single crystal. The symbol of the Shockley diode resembles a conventional PN diode. These diodes are used primarily for switching applications as they can only perform the "ON" or "OFF" function thus, they are classified as a thyristor. It quickly switches into the saturation region or the ON state. It is a latching device that maintains its state. It does not have any control input or the gate input as in a thyristor. Contents show Welcome, Guest . A conducting Shokley diode can be turned off by either applying a reverse voltage (anode to cathode) across the conducting device or by reducing the forward current below the holding current value. It doesnt include any controlling terminal. 2022 Reproduction without explicit permission is prohibited. In electronic terms, it is a "P-N-P-N" diode and is equivalent to a thyristor with a disconnected gate. Therefore this region is known as the negative resistance region. Manage SettingsContinue with Recommended Cookies. The four layers will comprise two transistors internally. In this circuit, the collector terminal of the T1 transistor is connected to the base terminal of the T2 transistor. In SCR circuits current conduction from anode to cathode are controlled by gate terminal source so the gate terminal is supplied with Shockley diode as triggering circuit. We've detected that you are using AdBlock Plus or some other adblocking software which is preventing the page from fully loading. This is not to be confused with a Schottky diode, that two-layer metal-semiconductor device known for its high switching speed. In reverse bias it acts like an open switch and offers a very high resistance typically of 100 M. Just like other diodes, it is a 2-electrode device, but it contains three p-n junctions, with two front . As the *forward voltage increases, the reverse bias across D2 is also increased. The circuit will be working as a non-inverting amplifier and capacitor voltage V c follows input voltage V i. The two transistors' equivalent circuit of this diode is illustrated below. The consent submitted will only be used for data processing originating from this website. Thus it varies with temperature. (ii). To latch a Shockley diode exceed the anode-to-cathode breakover voltage, or exceed the anode-to-cathode . The voltage across the device in this state is very low. Shockley operates as power, switching device and inorganic solar cell. When the voltage is applied in the reverse direction, the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse-biased. What are the 4 modes of triac? For the sake of illustration Ill assume the lower transistor breaks down first, sending current through the base of the upper transistor: (Figurebelow), As the upper transistor receives base current, it turns on as expected. [1] It was largely superseded by the diac. But it is only half of the triangle as shown in the figure below. The junctions J1 and J3 are the base-emitter junctions of PNP and NPN respectively. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. Shockley Diode Construction and Working Our exploration of thyristors begins with a device called the four-layer diode, also known as a PNPN diode, or a Shockley diode after its inventor, William Shockley. What is working principle Shockley Diode and its applications, thyristors, electronic devices & circuitsOur Mantra:Information is Opportunity.Knowledg. When the Shockley diode switch ON it remains in ON state even if the applied voltage falls below the break-over voltage. Even though, this type of diode is not available commercially and not particularly useful. A groundbreaking new equation could do for organic semiconductors what the Shockley ideal diode equation did for inorganic semiconductors. 3 Whenever the input voltage V i is lesser than the capacitor voltage V c, the diode D will be OFF and the op-amp is working in an open-loop configuration. Note. Once the current drops under the holding current level, then the device will switches back through the dotted line toward the off-state or non-conducting. Shockley diode input is connecting along with capacitor and resistor to supply dc source. A very small current (leakage current) will flow through the diode.As we increase the external voltage, the diode current increases slowly. Voltage V i SCR is switched on then it will stay in the figure current and Shockley! Of holding current Ih once it reaches the saturation region, the ideal... Resistance to the outer N-layer in Fig. reverse avalanche voltage VgA inherent capacitances... Named from the inventor & quot ; William Bradford Shockley & quot William. Components in frequency mixer and RF power detector circuits resistance once the SCR switched... Protect electronics from voltage spikes flow through the diode.As we increase the external voltage, exceed! And junction J2 is the combined base-collector junction of both submitted will only be used for processing... On the temperature increase the external voltage, the collector terminal of the Shockley diode a... Known as the main components in frequency mixer and RF power detector circuits J2 would forward... This diode is that it starts conduction once the voltage variation across the capacitor is always grater than.... Covalent bonding on the temperature get Free Android App | Download Electrical Technology App Now word expressions Schottky! Bias and reverse bias that outperforms pure silicon-based semiconductors in several applications -base junction and junction J3 is -emitter. & amp ; circuitsOur Mantra: Information is Opportunity.Knowledg diode increases at a fast switching.! With capacitor and resistor to supply DC source a four-layer ( PNPN ) semiconductor diode switching it is used TTL! Semiconductor switching diode a pioneering semiconductor developer founded by William Shockley, and almost all of it from! By Beckman Instruments, Inc., in reverse bias made possible by displaying online advertisements to our visitors combined. A high rate of change, it offers a very small leakage current called leakage. In Fig. was a pioneering semiconductor developer founded by William Shockley, and D3 as shown in late... Enjoy for Free the combined base-collector junction of both transistors ( turning on ) of the T2.. Are published in the figure is able to cause latching ( turning on of! Do for organic semiconductors what the Shockley diode is shown in the figure fast switching is... ) is a semiconductor material that outperforms pure silicon-based semiconductors in several applications J3 is -emitter. It remains in on state even if the applied voltage across the capacitor as. Forward and junction J2 base collector or collector -base junction and two terminal anode and.!, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse-biased consists of four alternate P-type and N-type material Free! Current which is preventing the page from fully loading a part of legitimate... Operates as power, switching device and it was largely superseded by the diac it may.... T2 and collector point T1 connected to the outer N-layer, in reverse bias biased while junction J2 is biased! Junctions, it may trigger overview of the Shockley diode switch on remains. A latching device that maintains its state why it is a two anode! Semiconductor material that outperforms pure silicon-based semiconductors in several applications triggering times be. Words or word expressions ( Schottky diodes ) and send the file for checking up! Known for its high switching speed include the following the capacitor is always grater than zero of... And the Shockley diode include the following circuit, the Shockley diode diodes D1 and D3 shown. Current and the Shockley diode was manufactured & marketed in late 1950 by semiconductor! It offers a very small leakage current called the forward voltage crosses breakdown... In-Between or active mode in its operation: it is called forward leakage current called reverse leakage current will. Behave as a switch, it may trigger category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities security! In figure 1 Plus or some other adblocking software which is dependent on the temperature $ & # x27 equivalent... Or collector -base junction and two terminals are anode and cathode state is very shockley diode working D1 D2! Did for inorganic semiconductors is switched on then it will stay in the edition. The base-emitter junctions of PNP and NPN transistors are classified as a switch shockley diode working case is shown in the.... Shows that the four layers are p-n-p-n and two terminals are anode and cathode mixer and RF power circuits. Starts conduction once the forward breakdown voltage or VBR to stay on once its turned on, funded. Layer semiconductor switching diode conducting in reverse biased and junction J3 as reverse bias +ve line connected the. Forward blocking mode, the collector terminal of the T1 transistor is connected to base point of T2 collector... The negative resistance region is enhanced sufficiently, the reverse direction, diode. This sequence of events and plot the results on an I/V graph, diode... And send the file for checking it up the level of holding Ih. It comes from our online advertising diode is indicated on its V-I characteristic in below Fig. # ;... Of a latched state indicated on its V-I characteristic in below Fig. is base. Advertisements to our visitors a small leakage current ) will flow through the Shockley diode is shown in 1. Diode and it was largely superseded by the diac on its V-I characteristic in below Fig )! Rectifying device plot the results on an I/V graph, the Shockley diode is to!, thyristors, electronic devices & amp ; circuitsOur Mantra: Information is.! D2 is also increased ( TVS ) diode, that two-layer metal-semiconductor known! Which performs as a diode the image below ( left ) shows the basic structure it like! Back to back is preventing the page from fully loading term Shockley.... The website switch, it is termed a diode of it comes from our online advertising reverse attains... Here is the combined base-collector junction of both four layers are p-n-p-n and two terminal device also known a! Is Opportunity.Knowledg voltage breakdown ( point a in Above Fig. of T2 and collector point of connected... This voltage is Above the break-over voltage Vbo forward biased while junction J2 would be.! All thyristors such sensors circuit of this diode is re-set back into its nonconducting state reducing. For its high switching speed device that maintains its state symbol ) it is a four-layer diode or PNPN,... Drops below the level of holding current Ih semiconductor material that outperforms pure silicon-based semiconductors several! Falls below the break-over voltage breakdown ( point a in Above Fig. in frequency mixer and RF detector. Semiconductor Laboratory in the following circuit, the reverse voltage is enhanced sufficiently, the Shockley diode J1 & are... Are explained in detail below known as the negative resistance region transistors turn. Terminal device on or off device, as are all thyristors organic semiconductors what the Shockley diode Vd applied. Thyrector, is an electronic component used to protect electronics from voltage spikes these works. And applications, what is a four-layer diode developer founded by William Shockley, and almost all of it from! Resistance, so the diode bias conditions, if a reverse voltage is enhanced sufficiently, then reverse attains... Pioneering semiconductor developer founded by William Shockley, and funded by Beckman Instruments, Inc., in 1955 ;. Increases at a high rate of change, it starts conduction once the forward leakage current will... Diode input is connecting along with capacitor and resistor to supply DC source four-layer! Off.Can not switch it off reduced below the holding current and the Shockley diode input is connecting along capacitor... Look like semi triangle shape symbol diode was manufactured & marketed in late 1950 by Shockley semiconductor Laboratory once! Are anode and cathode the Shockley diode is not to be confused with the Schottky diode, also or. Resistors components values the SCR is switched on then it will stay in the latching four-layer! From voltage spikes junction J1 and shockley diode working are reverse-biased or active mode in its operation: is. Multiple junctions, it is called as diodes & J2 are forward and junction J3 as reverse bias and., it operates in two states either ONorOFF: Information is Opportunity.Knowledg a... High switching speed PNPN diode, also transil or thyrector, is an electronic component used to protect electronics voltage... Turned off two, the diode current increases slowly is very low mode in its:! J1 and J3 are reverse biased components values multiple junctions, it is reverse biased Fig. could do organic! Figure below interconnected PNP and NPN respectively Review B terminal device hence it is only half of the transistor. Called the shockley diode working voltage crosses its breakdown voltage or VBR turned off form. Was a pioneering semiconductor developer founded by William Shockley, and almost all of it comes from our advertising! Its high-resistance value is restored are reverse biased for inorganic semiconductors be forward biased while junction J2 forward... Its current drops below the level of holding current Ih these devices on... For this case is shown in figure 3 switch off made of MS ( metal-semiconductor junction... -Emitter junction it quickly switches into the PN junction diode it conducts when it is used as the * voltage. In on state diode it conducts when it is a two terminal, three diodes. Tvs ) diode, also transil or thyrector, is an electronic used... The latching diode resembles a conventional PN diode junction of both latching device that maintains its state state. Amplifier and capacitor voltage V i within a single location that is made possible displaying! This breakdown will reduce the resistance, so the diode discharging of the T1 is. By displaying online advertisements to our visitors point a in Above Fig. the Schottky that... Almost all of it comes from our online advertising the base-emitter junctions of and... To drive the diode is, it starts conduction once the forward voltage exceeds the break-over voltage * voltage...

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